"I feel as if living in Istanbul has taken away my sense of masculinity," shared Waseem,1 a 30-year-old Syrian medical resident doctor at Istanbul University, as we sipped tea in Istanbul's Fatih neighborhood. "I am not actualizing my masculinity or my true character"i he added. Feelings of weakened masculinity and challenges in actualizing one's identity are prevalent among displaced Syrian men in Turkey. However, their narratives often receive inadequate attention. While heartbreaking stories of family separation and children enduring immense suffering deserve recognition, there is a crucial component missing in the way stakeholders, including academia and NGOs, portray the refugee experience as a centered perspective on the lived experiences of young Syrian men forced into exile.
The concept of "lived experience" refers to the representation and understanding of human experiences, choices, and options that shape one's perception of knowledge (Given, 2008). During my conversations with Anas, a 32-year-old single Syrian man who has lived in Istanbul for six years and works as an English teacher, he shared how displacement has profoundly affected his identity and notions of masculinity. As we chatted looking at the scenic beauty of Istanbul's Golden Horn, Anas expressed a deep sense of solitude and longing for his absent family in Syria. Notably, he mentioned that as a single man, he struggled to fully appreciate the natural beauty without a partner by his side. Anas's reflections powerfully illustrated the feelings of loss and isolation that arise from being disconnected from family and community in exile. The landscapes that once brought him joy in his Syrian hometown of Aleppo now serve as reminders of his loneliness as he navigates life alone in Istanbul, detached from his role as a family provider and protector. This highlights how displacement disrupts traditional gender conceptions and shapes the subjective identity of Syrian men in exile, influenced by socio-political, cultural, and economic factors (Given, 2008).
Anas's perspective reinforces the notion that Syrian masculinity is deeply intertwined with family roles, providing insight into the profound effects of displacement experienced by Syrian men.
As part of my ongoing PhD research for the DPhil in Migration Studies, I am conducting semi-structured interviews to examine how displacement shapes notions of masculinity among displaced Syrian men living in Istanbul. Specifically, I seek to understand how concepts of masculinity have been (re)constructed in comparison to hegemonic masculinity in Syrian society. Through fifteen interviews conducted between December 2020 and April 2021 with Syrian male refugees residing in urban Istanbul.
My research has identified that Syrian men's understanding of masculinity is evolving. Rather than rigid social norms, greater emphasis is now placed on virtues of character such as integrity, piety and compassion. While Syrian men yearning for lost community in Syria, their journeys of self-reflection reveal masculinity reconstructed on a foundation of duty to loved ones, faith and ethics over as masculinity that used to be perceived prior to migration by the majority of my respondents.
Previous studies on Syrian refugee masculinity in diaspora contexts offer valuable comparisons. For instance, research conducted in the Netherlands revealed that masculinity among Syrian refugees was constructed in relation to labor market access, paid employment, and perceived social status (Huizinga and van Hoven 2021). In contrast, Syrian refugees in Egypt renegotiated masculinity by distancing themselves from the "refugee" label. Moreover, Syrian men in Egypt self-ascribed as morally superior and hardworking compared to those receiving state support, stigmatizing Syrian asylum seekers in Europe as losing Middle Eastern culture through European protection (Suerbaum 2018). These findings highlight the complex ways in which masculinity is shaped and reconstructed among Syrian refugees in different host countries.
The status of "guest" for Syrians in Turkey, under the temporary protection scheme, lacks legal distinction from refugees in other host countries’ contexts. The current legal framework in Turkey does not grant Syrians official refugee status or provide a clear pathway to obtain Turkish citizenship. Consequently, these Syrians find themselves in a perpetual state of uncertainty, with a protracted stay in Turkey lasting over ten years. Given their distinct circumstances, it is important to examine their self-perceptions independently of legal classifications, as these labels may not accurately reflect their lived realities.
Parallels with Kenya
Understanding the experiences of displaced Syrian men in Istanbul can be informed by examining the parallels with young male refugees in Nairobi, Kenya. In Kenya, refugees have expressed the challenge of accepting their forced displacement by other men, leading to feelings of humiliation (Jaji 2009, 174-94). Similarly, since the outbreak of the Syrian uprising in 2011, displaced Syrian men in Lebanon have expressed remorse for leaving their homeland instead of staying to fulfill their duty as guardians and defenders of their land. These shared experiences highlight the impact of displacement on the sense of self-worth and powerlessness experienced by Syrian men, particularly in their roles as family providers and protectors (Harvey et al. 2013).
In examining masculinity within the context of forced migration, it is essential to recognize that masculinity is a complex social construct that encompasses the social roles and expectations associated with being a man. According to Kimmel and Bridges, masculinity is defined as “the behaviors, social roles, and relations of men within a given society as well as the meanings attributed to them.” (Oxford Bibliographies 2011) When men are forced to migrate, they often bring with them preconceived notions and beliefs about gender roles that are deeply rooted in their home culture (Donaldson and Howson 2009). By considering the challenges faced by Syrian men in Turkey, as well as the experiences of male refugees in other locations, we can gain insights into how displacement and the interplay of societal, cultural, and personal factors reshape their sense of masculinity. This theoretical framework allows us to explore how the process of forced migration influences and transforms the understanding of masculinity among Syrian men.
Muhammed Zeyn is a PhD candidate in Migration Studies at COMPAS, University of Oxford. He holds master’s degrees from Ibn Haldun University in Istanbul and the University of Oxford. His research focuses on the psychosocial impacts of displacement and digital media and the integration issues facing displaced communities and returnees.
